FRENCH NAVAL LEADERS
AND THE
FRENCH NAVY
IN THE
AMERICAN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE
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French ships of the line, Ville de Paris and Auguste,
engaged in the famous 'Second Battle of the Virginia Capes' in
September 1781. Detail from oil painting by Zveg and held by the US
Naval Historic Center, Washington, DC.
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Brief Introduction of the Marine Royale during 1775-1783
The French Navy's role in the success of the American Revolution is
seldom acknowledged in general American histories. Yet it is difficult
to see how American independence could have been won -- at least in
that particular war -- against a regime that was the world's
acknowledge leading naval power in terms of ship inventory and recent
combat exploits. Certainly, the undisputed expert on the war, General
Washington, appreciated the critical importance of naval presence in the
North American theater. As long as the British navy could support their
army's operations along the eastern coastline, the rebellion was
doomed.
The French naval success at the Second Battle of the Virginia Capes in
September 1781 was ‘the keystone' of the Yorktown Campaign, and provides
dramatic testimony of the French Navy's contribution to the American
cause in that theater of operations. In all due respect to the modest
Continental and American state navies, and to the spectacular
performances of the American privateers, it was the Royal French Navy that was the only ‘standing navy' to serve the American army in terms of engaging British naval formations and supporting land operations in North America.
The American rebels did not produce the arms and gunpowder needed to
confront the British forces sent to put down the rebellion. Even before
the French Alliance in 1778, the American rebels sought and received
from Europe the needed matériel, the military engineers and other
officers with professional skills, and the funds to finance the war.
These basic resources that sustained the American forces in the field
until Yorktown were delivered largely due to armed escorts of the French
Navy. American privateers, operating out of European ports, received
significant personnel and matériel support directly from the French
Navy. It was the French navy that achieved a dominance in possession of
the vital West Indian islands that were the life line in logistical
support of the Americans. The professional French expeditionary army and
siege train that joined Washington in 1780 were transported by a French
naval squadron; this factor and the French fleet that appeared off the
Virginia coast at the end of August 1781 are symbolic of the ‘projection of French armed forces across the Atlantic', penetrating the numerically superior British Navy's efforts to isolate the colonies.
However, as important as the North American theater was, the French Navy forced the British to fight a global war
that reached from the Hudson Bay to the Indian Ocean, from Newfoundland
to the northen coast of South America and western coast of Africa.
Eventually France was able to elicit the assistance of the Spanish Navy
to at least confront the British numerical strength which helped in the
global dispersion of the war. Just as importantly, French naval power
continued to maintain a dynamic offensive in the Bay of Bengal, in the
Mediterranean, and in the Caribbean as the peace treaties were being
negotiated in 1783.
The breath and scope of the French naval participation in the American
War for Independence may be hidden from those who are confined to
Anglophone sources of the history. The explanation requires an analysis
too lengthy to be addressed here. On a positive side, one might note an
overview observation Jack Coggins makes in his ‘Introduction' to Ships
and Seamen of the American Revolution – vessels, crews, weapons, gear,
naval tactics, and actions of the War for Independence (Stackpole, 1969) p.11:
"The average American history book tends to treat the naval
side of the war as a series of ship-vs.-ship incidents and dwells more
on its military aspects. But the struggle for North America was fought
not only at Trenton, Monmouth, Camden, and King's Mountain. It was
fought in the cold, gray seas of the western approaches off Ushant; off
Cadiz, and in the shadow of grim Gibraltar; and in the clear tropical
water of the West Indies. Renowned as the long fight of the Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis, and the capture by the Thorn
of two English sloops of war, it was not by such isolated incidents
that independence was won. Ships' actions there were in plenty, and the
privateers who swarmed out of American [and European!] ports did
grievous hurt to England's merchant marine. But the decisive factor
was the often complicated and sometimes almost bloodless
behind-the-scenes maneuvering of the fleets of great naval powers." [webpage edit injected within brackets as well as use of bold front]
However, Coggins goes on to say that "a detailed history of the
world-wide sea war of 1778-1783 [was] ... beyond the scope" of his
book. Fortunately for the Anglophones, there are two scholarly works
that provide considerable background on this topic:
Ernest H. Jenkins. A History of the French Navy from Its Beginnings to the Present Day (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1973), especially ‘Chapter X: Reform: Recovery: Revenge', pp.142-200.
Jonathan R. Dull. The French Navy and American Independence; A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774-1787, (Princeton University Press, NJ, 1975).
Separate webpages directly related to this subject are at:
Supplementary introduction by Vice Admiral Edwin B. Hooper, USN (Ret), from The War at Sea: France and the American Revolution, A Bibliography, Naval History Division, Department of the Navy, Washington DC (US Government Printing Office, 1976).
The French Navy and the Independence of the United States.
Article by Dr. Ulane Bonnel, a specialist in French-American naval
history. Her article first appeared in November 1975 issues of the
French Navy's magazine Cols Bleus; and later as a
commemorative brochure by the Ambassade de France Service de Presse et
d'Information , NY, for the Bicentennial of the American Revolution.
The geographic scope of the French naval participation is identified in webpage:
'Table Summary of Movements of French Naval Fleets During the War for American Independence'.
and Adobe Acrobat (pdf) file "Partial Inventory of Killed and Wounded French Soldiers and Sailors in the War for America" at:
http://www.xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/PertRDNe2.pdf
Other webpages with related topics on this subject are:
'World War Context of the American Revolution'.
'Yorktown Campaign (1781)'.
'Second Battle of the Virginia Capes (1781)'.
'West Indies Score Card During the American War for Independence'.
'Strategic Assessment of the Battle of the Saintes (12 April 1782)'.
'After Yorktown 1781: The War Beyond the Horizon'
This rest of this page is a 'working draft' -- subject to continued
revisions -- to acknowledge the contribution of specific French naval
leaders listed below.
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Directory for topics covered in this webpage:
Links to specific separate pages on others who influenced
French National Strategy in the American war:
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- Comte de Vergennes
- Louis XVI of France
- Choiseul and de Choiseul-Praslin [not yet activated]
- Antoine-Raymond-Gualbert-Gabriel de Sartine, comte d'Alby [not yet activated]
- Charles de La Crois, Marquis de Castries [not yet activated]
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COMTE DE GRASSE
François Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse (1722-1788).
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Arguably the most famous of the French naval leaders in the American
Revolution. His fame was won as victor of the Second Battle of the
Virginia Capes, where his fleet of 24 French ships of the line drove off
the 19 British ships under Admiral Graves in early September 1781, thus
isolating the British forces of Cornwallis at Yorktown.
It was one of the those strategically decisive, tactically indecisive
engagements that mark strange turning points in the history of warfare.
Late in the morning of 5 September, Admiral Graves' British squadron
approached the mouth (between the capes Henry and Charles) of the
Chesapeake, and sighted Admiral de Grasse's French squadron just inside
the bay. De Grasse immediately set sail, deploying his ships though some
were under strength due to being surprised. The two fleets aligned in
southeast, parallel courses. The opposing armadas exchanged furious
broadside fire, and drifted south until near sunset. The two squadrons
maneuvered against one another for three days. Both sides suffered
considerable structural damage to their ships and incurred heavy
personal casualties. Though no ships were directly sunk or captured
during the action, the British ship of the line Terrible was so badly damaged by the French broadsides that the British were forced to burn and sink her before fleeing to New York.
De Grasse's decision to deploy out from the Bay's entrance –
rather than merely remain in a blocking formation – was most likely to
keep the Bay open for the expected arrival of le Comte de Barras' small
squadron transporting the critical French siege artillery for the allied
siege of Yorktown. De Grasse had been made aware of Barras' itinerary
in a 19 August dispatch. [See link to this below.]
On 9 September, De Grasse took the lead on Graves and returned to the
Chesapeake, where he resumed the French blockade by the time the British
squadron reached the bay the morning of 13th. Graves dared not continue
the contest, and returned to New York for needed repairs -- losing the Terrible
enroute. During the engagement at sea, the small French naval squadron,
under Barras, slipped into the Chesapeake (10 September) with the
French heavy artillery from Newport that would be critical to the Allied
siege of Yorktown.
A note of clarification. There had been an earlier 'Battle of the
Virginia Capes'. On 16 March 1781, a French squadron under des Touches
fought a British squadron under Arbuthnot for about an hour. [See des
Touches below]
De Grasse sailed from the Chesapeake 4 November 1781, and took his main
fleet to Fort Royal (Fort France today), Martinique, arriving 25
November. While waiting for reinforcements from France before
undertaking his next major campaign -- a combined French and Spanish
assault to seize British held Jamaica -- de Grasse kept busy with
taking a few British held islands in the Lesser Antilles in late 1781
and early 1782. Once the provisions and reinforcements arrived for the
Jamaican invasion, De Grasse led a large troop convoy from Saint
Domingue on 8 April 1782, with the intention to rendezvous with the
Spanish forces. However, the British admiral Rodney intercepted the
French off the Îles des Saintes, just south of Guadeloupe. De Grasse's
quick action managed to save all of the troop transports, but his naval
fleet was scattered. Some of the French ships were captured, including
de Grasse's flagship with the admiral aboard. [The 12 April 1782 ‘Battle
of the Saintes' is covered on a separate page, the link to which is
given below.]
De Grasse was taken as a prisoner to London, where he was treated with considerable respect. (The Ville-de-Paris
sunk in an accident before reaching England.) The English king
personally returned to de Grasse his admiral's sword. The English also
engaged de Grasse in ‘peace feelers' and then paroled de Grasse to
return to France so as to submit the suggestions to the French
authorities. De Grasse's report was instrumental in the ‘Preliminary
Articles of Peace' then drafted by the French Foreign Minister,
Vergennes.
However, de Grasse was indignant to find that some of the naval officers
who served with him at ‘the Saintes' had disparaged his reputation so
as to shield themselves from any blame. In response, de Grasse went
directly to the Minister of the French Navy, Castries, and accused many
of his subordinate ship captains at the battle of abandoning their
stations during the engagement. These subordinates, in turn, made
counter charges, which led to a four-months trial held at Lorient.
Though the judgment was for de Grasse, and against the former
subordinates, King, Louis XVI, was upset that de Grasse had pressed his
accusations so aggressively. Unwelcomed at the court, de Grasse retired
to his estate outside Paris at château Tilly.
Meanwhile, he received many expressions of gratitude from America. The
US Congress sent him four British cannons taken at Yorktown. In December
1783, the Society of Cincinnati conferred upon him the status of a
founding member. General Washington wrote to him:
"Among the many obligations that the United States have
gained visa-vis the men of the French Army and Navy who have taken such a
noble part in our establishment, that which you have acquired will be
profoundly engraved in the spirit of its sons in indelible character,
with gratitude and deep respect".
On 18 January 1786, Louis XVI welcomed de Grasse back at Versailles to
celebrate a Mass for the order of Saint-Louis. De Grasse returned to
live in his Paris residence on rue Saint-Honore, where the Admiral died
14 January 1788. He was buried in the Saint-Roch church, where he
remains to this day, and his heart was buried in the church at Tilly.
- See the following Expédition Particulière webpages:
- De Barras' 19 August 1781 Dispatch to de Grasse.
- Second Naval Battle of the Virginia Capes (1781).
- Strategic Assessment of the Battle of the Saints (12 April 1782).
- West Indies Score Card During the American Revolution.
- Musée de la Marine, at Grasse, France.
- Tributes to de Grasse.
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A modern note, based upon an article "Four Cannons for the Admiral, A Personal Reminisence" by Oliver Jackson Sands, Jr. in Virginia Cavalcade, Autumn 1981, pp.96-101.
Château de Tilly, comte de Grasse's home, 35 miles southeast of Paris.
Four British cannons that were captured at Yorktown were shipped by the
Americans and placed at the entrance of château de Tilly. These were
taken and melted down during the French Revolution. Five of the
admiral's grandchildren escaped to the US and became US citizens. The
château was restored in 1972. Americans had cast and presented
replacement cannons at de Tilly in June 1976.
These were cast from a mold made from one of the original British cannon
from Yorktown (1781) that was given to the US Military Academy at West
Point, NY.
This latter act appears to have been in response to a 1964 initiative of
the French society of the Cincinnati, who presented to the US two
batteries of five eighteenth-century French cannon to be placed on the
battlefield at Yorktown. The cannon were not original, but had been cast
in the original eighteenth-century molds that the French had preserved
at the Toulon arsenal.
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COMTE D'ESTAING
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Admiral d'Estaing began his military career as a commander of land
forces. He was captured twice by the British in battles for the East
Indies, where he began to command naval operations. In 1763, he was made
'Lt. General' in the French Navy, and made Vice Admiral in 1777.
In 1778 he commanded a fleet sent to North America. He participated in
poorly coordinated French-American operations at New York (11-22 July)
and at Newport (29-31 August). He sailed to the West Indies in November,
where he failed in attempt to re take Santa Lucia, but succeeded in
capturing St. Vincent and Grenada. He also bested the British in a sea
battle on 6 July, but did not follow up. He has generally been
criticized as being too cautious a naval commander.
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Charles Henri Jean-Baptiste, Comte d'Estaing (1729-94). Painting by Pierre Franque, château de Versailles.
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D'Estaing's personal bravery was not doubted, as
attested during his return to North American waters in fall of 1779. He
directed an allied siege of the British fortifications at Savannah (9
October). He was wounded leading a land assault, and the siege had to be
broken off. Some historians blame d'Estaing's failed allied ventures on
his autocratic manner, which contrasted dramatically with that of
Rochambeau. It is worth noting that d'Estaing had to be ‘the commanding
general' as well as ‘the admiral' of the French forces in 1778. Whereas,
in 1780-81, Rochambeau and de Grasse could focus on these functions
separately. Further, d'Estaings's opportunity to develop an environment
for combined [inter allied] planning was non existent; nor did he have
the benefit of ‘some lessons learned' gained from a prior French
expedition working with the American insurgents. There is little doubt
that both Rochambeau and de Grasse benefitted in 1780-81 from the
experiences of d'Estaing.
Many narratives that cover the set backs of d'Estaing's operations in
the North America fail to address the difficulties encountered by a
French navy squadron in waters that were more familiar to the British.
De Grasse benefitted by having been with d'Estaing's forces in 1778 and
1779, and was well prepared in 1781 to have made advance arrangements
for American pilots to assist. Another irony is that the failed 1779
siege of Savannah (GA) instigated the British evacuation of Newport
(RI), which had been the objective of the allied July-August 1778
campaign.
D'Estaing was well liked by the king and his career did not suffer from
his 1778-79 exploits in North America. His campaigns in the West Indies
ended generally positive for French interests; whereas, his efforts in
the American colonies were failures. This contrasted with de Grasse's
later experience, which was singularly productive for the American
cause, but ended most poorly for France with his defeat and capture in
the naval ‘Battle of Dominica' [or ‘the Saints'] (12 April 1782) in the
West Indies. In early 1783, d'Estaing was placed in command of a new
French and Spanish armada being assembled at Cadiz to deploy to the West
Indies with the intent to launch another assault against Jamaica. The
venture was aborted when the Peace treaties were signed that year.
D'Estaing did not fare well in the French Revolution and was executed in
April 1794.
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Admiral Pierre-André de Suffren Saint-Tropez, called 'Bailli de Suffren', (1729-1788).
Oil painting by Pompeo Batoni (c.1785). Held by Musée National du Château de Versailles et de Trianon.
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Chevalier-commander André de Suffren has the distinction of being
acclaimed as France's finest admiral that fought in the American War
for Independence. Suffren's fame is due mostly to his 1782-1783 campaign
in the East Indies. As this campaign was fought on 'the other side of
the world' -- well off from the horizon of North America and with no
American participation -- and is often overlooked in most historical
accounts. Even before his ventures in the Bay of Bengal, Suffren had
established himself as a well experienced seaman.
From a noble family in Provence, the young Suffren entered the gardes de la Marine in 1743. He followed the tradition of many French naval cadets from Southern France by joining the Ordre des Chevaliers de Malte
in 1749. But unlike many others, such as de Grasse, who left the Order
so as to marry, Suffren never married, remained a member all his life
and achieved the Maltese Order rank of Bailli.
Suffren fought in earlier wars that took him to the West Indies in 1746,
and saw him captured by the British the following year in the Bay of
Biscay. After some time with the galleys of the Knights of Malta,
Suffren returned to the French navy and participated in the capture of
the British held Minorca in the Seven Years' War. He was again captured
by British in a later battle off Lagos. He went on to command the French
xebec [three- masted Mediterranean corsairs' vessel] Caméléon
in a campaign against the Barbary Pirates. He served again with the
Order of Malta from 1767 to 1771, before returning to the French navy to
train officers. Commanding the 64 gun Fantasque, Suffren deployed to North America as part of d'Estaing's fleet in 1778.
Suffren immediatley established his reputation for daring and aggressive maneuvers when he, with his Fantasque plus three frigates (Aimable, Chimère, Engageante),
forced an entrance into Newport harbor (5 August 1778). The surprised
British squadron in the harbor panicked and ran aground three frigates
and a galley, all of which were burned by their captains. The British
scuttled their other ships in an effort to bar the entrance of the main
French fleet. However, de Estaing's fleet managed to enter on 8 August.
In June of the following year, with d'Estaing in the West Indies,
Suffren led the avant garde of the French fleet off Grenada.
Though his Fantasque sustained the main effort (over 60
crew killed) against the opposing British squadron under Byron, Suffren
held the French line. After this, Suffren was rewarded by being put in
charge of 2 ships-of-the-line and 3 frigates to raid the merchant
convoys. Though Suffren was openly critical of d'Estaing's apparent
timid naval tactics, the latter did not let this prevent him from
recommending Suffren to be given command of a squadron that was to
deploy in 1781 to defend Dutch possessions at the Cape of Good Hope.
Suffren led a French naval squadron out of Brest at the same time De
Grasse's larger fleet deployed to North America in 1781. Suffren's
squadron headed toward the South Atlantic. Enroute, he surprised and
seriously damaged an English naval squadron at La Praya in the Cape
Verde Islands (16 April 1781). Suffren then went to the Dutch colony at
the Cape of Good Hope and off loaded French troops to aid in the
defense. Proceeding east, around the Cape, Suffren joined with another
French squadron at Île de France [Mauritius], a major French port in the
Indian Ocean. The French fleet proceeded east to the Bay of Bengal,
where Suffren would for nearly two years maneuver and fight against much
better provisioned British naval formations. Suffren's only shore
assistance was from the Indian Mysore leader, Hyder Ali, who was also
fighting the British, and use of small Dutch ports in Ceylon. Suffren
returned to France a hero and was awarded the rank of a vice-admiral.
Suffren's famous 1782-1783 campaign is described in a separate webpage,
which is linked below.
See webpage on Suffren's East Indian Campaign (1782-1783) -- the last battles of the American Revolution fought on the other side of the world
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LA MOTTE--PICQUET
Jean Guillaume Toussaint, comte de La Motte-Picquet de La Vinoyère (1720-1791).
[known popularly as ‘La Motte-Picquet']
Bust is displayed in the principal passageway of the frigate La Motte Picquet.
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La Motte-Picquet was one of the finest of the French naval tacticians
in the War for America. He was born at Rennes 1November, 1720, with the
name of Picquet, seigneur de La Motte, but was later created by the King
comte de La Motte-Picquet. His contemporaries and historians know him
as 'La Motte-Picquet'. La Motte-Picquet entered the ‘gardes marines'
[naval cadets] in 1735. He campaigned successively on the coasts of
Morocco, in Baltic, to the West Indies [Antilles], to the [East] Indes.
Noticed for his skill at meanuvering, he was summoned to Paris in 1775,
where he counseled the Secretary of State in preparing the 1776 orders
that reorganize the administration of the Navy. Chef d'escadre in 1778,
La Motte-Picque participated in the battle of Ouessant [Ushant] (27
July 1778), and crossed next to the English coast where he took 13
prizes in a month.
In the course of the War for American Independence, La Motte Picque
distinguishesd himself on several occasions. He rallied d'Estaing's
Squadron at Martinique in June 1779, and took part in the fight of the
Grenade (July 1779) and the Savannah l'expédition (October 1779). Most
dramatically was on 18 December 1779, in front of Fort Royal,
Martinique, La Motte-Picquet (3 ships of the line) aggressively attacked
the English squadron (13 ships of the line, 1 frigate) of Hyde-Parker,
the British admiral who blocked the way of a 26 ship convoy coming from
France. Hyde-Parker seized 10 of the 26 merchant ships, 4 others ran
aground and were burnt. However the skill of La Motte-Picquet's
maneuvers and the harshness of his action, drew praise from the British
admiral in a message of 28 December:
"The conduct of your Excellency in the affair of the 18th
of this month fully justifies the reputation which you enjoy among us,
and I assure you that I could not witness without envy the skill you
showed on that occasion. Our enmity is transient, depending upon our
masters; but your merit has stamped upon my heart the greatest
admiration for yourself." [pp.129-130 Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence by Alfred T. Mahan (1912)]
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Louis XVI commanded a painting (1786) representing the 18 December 1779
naval engagement. This image is an engraving by Chavane after the
original painting by A.I. Rossel de Cercy (1736-1804).
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On 1May 1781, as commander of a
division of 6 vessels and 3 frégates, La Motte-Picque intercepted an
English convoy carrying the loot from the British admiral Rodney's
capture of the dutch island of Saint-Eustache. La Motte-Picque captured
26 of the British cargo vessels. He was made lieutenant general in the
Royal Navy in 1782 January. He died at Brest, 10 June 1791, after 52
years of service, 34 campaigns, 10 battles and 6 wounds.
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CHEVALIER DE TERNAY
Charles Louis d'Arsac, Chevalier de Ternay (1722-1780)
Chevalier de Ternay (1722-1780) was a veteran of many wars and had a
most distinguished career. Returning from retirement he was put in
charge of the squadron to escort Rochambeau's expeditionary corps to
North America in 1780. Ternay's sailed out of the Brest harbor 15 April
1780. It consisted of 7 'men of war' [or 'ships of the Line'], 3
frigates, 2 cutters, 1corvette, all of which escorted 35 other ships
that were either transports, or war ships serving as supply ships. These
ships carried for the most part the French Expeditionary army under le
comte de Rochambeau, which proved to be a critical element in the
ultimate military victory at Yorktown in 1781.
Chevalier de Ternay is credited with good judgment in his selected route
crossing the Atlantic in face of a potential challenge by any of a
large number of British naval forces, against which the French large
transport formation would be at a disadvantage. As it developed, Ternay
did meet a British fleet of four of the line and fifty-gunner under
Commodore Cornwallis, in late June, off Bermuda. A short 'running'
exchange of cannon fire developed. In spite of the superior number of
French warships, and the temptation to seize one of the British ships
that had separated from its formation, Ternay discontinued the action.
He took his main mission to be conducting his convoy
safely to North America, and would not risk it by attempting to pick up
some trophies on the way.
Ternay's squadron entered Narragansett Bay, Newport, Rhode Island, 10
July 1780. Rochambeau and his expeditionary corps began disembarking 12
July. The French naval squadron assumed a strong defensive position and
was soon ‘blockaded' by 13 British ships of the line under Admiral
Graves who took a position off Sandy Hook.
Ternay died of a fever in Newport on 15 December 1780. Chevalier Des
Touches [Destouches] succeeded Ternay as fleet commander, until the
arrival of comte de Barras, in May 1781, who assumed command of the
French naval squadron at Newport.
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CHEVALIER DES TOUCHES
Charles-René-Dominique Sochet, Chevalier des Touches (1727-1793)
Admiral Charles-René-Dominique Sochet, Chevalier des Touches took over
command of the French naval squadron at Newport, RI, following the death
of Admiral Ternay in December 1780. Des Touches was responsible for two
initiatives, which were approved by Rochambeau and Washington:
In January 1781, Des Touches dispached a small squadron (L'Eveillé (64) and 3 frigates) under Tilly to attack the British movements in the Chesapeake. They captured the British Le Romulus (44) and brought her back to Newport.
Later, Washington and Rochambeau attempted to execute a combined
operation against British forces, under Arnold, in Virginia. Washington
dispached La Fayette with his American force to march overland, using
some inland waterways, to the Portsmouth area of Virginia. There,
Lafayette's force was to be joined by a French force of 1,200+ and 16
siege cannons, under Viomesnil, that was to be transported by Des
Touches' naval squadron. Destouches' French convoy was intercepted on 16
March 1781 and fought a British squadron under Arbuthnot for about an
hour. Though the British received the worst in the exchange, Des Touches
decided not to attempt to force an entrance to the Chesapeake and
sailed back to Rhode Island. The result was nearly the opposite of the
later, September 1781 'second' battle of the Virginia Capes [See de
Grasse, above]. Arbuthnot managed to keep open a line of communications
to Arnold's British land army, conducting a campaign of devastation in
Virginia. Destouches' failure to land about 1,200 troops compromised the
efforts of an American force, commanded by Lafayette, that had marched
south and would enter into Virginia in April of that year. The British
were able to reinforce in Virginia with troops under General Phillips,
who assumed British command in the theater until Cornwallis arrived.
Des Touches remained in command of the French Newport naval Squadron until the arrival of Barras in May 1781.
See webpages:
First Naval Battle of the Virginia Capes (16 March 1781).
Lafayette's Virginia Campaign of 1781.
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COMTE DE BARRAS
Jacques-Melchior (Saint-Laurent), Comte de Barras (1719 - c.1793)
 Jacques-Melchior (Saint-Laurent), comte de Barras arrived at Newport, Rhode Island on 8 May aboard La Concorde
to take command of the French naval squadron. He was over 60 years old
and had considerable naval experience. He commanded the vanguard of
d'Estaing's fleet that forced the entry of the Newport harbor in August
1778. He proved to be a cautious, but very capable naval leader.
Barras refused to convoy the French army to the Chesapeake when
proposed by Washington and Rochambeau, wisely considering the scheme too
risky for his small French naval squadron in waters where much larger
number of British ships could assemble against the French. Barras also
did not want to move his squadron to Boston as Washington and Rochambeau
had decided at the Wethersferd Conference of May 1781. At first he
expressed a reluctance to join his squadron with the larger fleet under
De Grasse when the allied commanders learned of the latter's intention
to go to the Chesapeake and Washington and Rochambeau decided to
redeploy their combined armies to the same area. Barras was technically
senior in date of rank to de Grasse, but the latter had been give the
larger force and designated to be in command of all French naval assets
in its operating theater. Barras even considered raiding Newfoundland in
stead of supporting the Yorktown campaign. However, he eventually
cooperated. Choosing to sail the safest course, keeping out to sea about
sixty nautical miles east of Boston, Barras brought the valuable French
siege train with him when he entered the Chesapeake Bay 10 September
1781, as fleets that fought the 5 September ‘Second Battle of the
Virginia Capes' were still out to sea.
Later, in February 1782, Barras distinguished himself in the West Indies
by capturing Montserrat from the British. Illness forced Barras to
depart from Fort royal (Martinique) on 27 March 1782, with La Concorde,
to return to France. Barras arrived at Île de Aix on 23 April 1783. He
was promoted Vice-amiral 1 January 1791, and retired and died shortly
after.
The image of admiral de Barras shown on this page is from
Trumbull's painting of the "Surrender of Lord Cornwallis" that is
displayed in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. Formerly this page mistakenly
used a print of Paul de Barras', a nephew of the admiral. Trumbull based
his portraits in the painting from sketches made in Paris c. 1787.
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MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL
Louis-Philippe Rigaud Marquis de Vaudreuil (1724 - 1802)
[Second in command under de Grasse, assumed command of the fleet after battle of the Saintes (12 April 1782)]
In December 1778, de Vaudreuil led the French naval squadron that
conducted a French army contingent, under the duc de Lauzun, that
recaptured Senegal (west coast of Africa) from the British. [Lauzun had
temporarly left his newly formed Legion de Volontaires Etrangers de la Marine
at Brittany, and would be upset when he returned from Senegal to find
that part of this force had been deployed to the West Indies and India
in his absence.] De Vaudreuil, left Lauzun (to return to France in a
smaller ship) and departed directly from Senegal on board Le Fendant with a squadron (Fendant, Sphinx, Résolue, and Nymphe)
and deployed directly to the West Indies where he reinforced d'Estaing.
Vaudreuil took part to the July 1779 engagement at Grenada against the
British admiral Byron. De Vaudreuil was with d'Estaing at the failed
allied siege of Savannah in September - October 1779. De Vaudreuil was
back at La Martinique to welcome the arrival of Guichen, the new French
naval commander in the West Indies in March 1780. Vaudreuil took part in
the Guichen's naval actions against the British admiral Rodney, and
then sailed
back to Brest, where he was given the command of the newly built, 80
gun, Triumphant.
Vaudreuil, commanding Le Sceptre, returned to the
West Indies in March 1781 as part of de Grasse's fleet. He was present
at the Second Battle of the Capes in September of that year. His ship
provided 800 soldiers from the vessel's garrison to support the land
forces of the French army commander, Choisy, at Gloucester Point during
the 1781 September-October Siege of Yorktown.
Vaudreuil was in charge of the first squadron at the April 1782
battle of Les Saintes. He was wounded in the battle, but led reminents
of the French fleet back to Saint Domingue (Haïti). By 26 April he had
gathered with 80% of Grasse's fleet: 28 vessels [ships of the line] and 7
frigates. He sent 12 non-copper covered ships back to Europe.
Keeping Sagittaire and Zélé to guard the Islands, Vaudreuil sailed to Boston on July 5 to refit the remaining 13 ships of the line (among which, the Magnifique
would sink in New England waters). In August 1782, Vaudreuil arrived at
Boston to bring naval help for the French and American allied armies,
as well as to find wood for his masts. He was promoted lieutenant
général 14 August 1782.
During 9-31August 1782, Vaudreuil sent La Pérouse (with Le Sceptre, L'Engageante, L'Astrée) on a mission to raid British establishments (Prince of Wales, York, and Severn) in the Hudson Bay.
On 24 December 1782, Vaudreuil's squadron departed Boston to transport
the infantry regiments [excluding Lauzun's Legion] of Rochambeau's
expeditionary army to West Indies (Porto Caballo), as part of a renewed
operation against Jamaica. However, news of the peace arrived on 24
March, and the plan was aborted.
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COMTE DE GUICHEN
Luc-Urbain Comte de Guichen (1712 - 1790)
[Succeeds d'Estaing in North America]
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Comte de Guichen's French ship was among other French ships that saluted the USS Ranger
under John Paul Jones in the harbor of Quiberon (13 February 1778).
This was essentially the first recognition of the American Flag in the
form of the ‘Stars and Stripes' by a foreign Government. [Technically
‘the first slaute' to a US warship was when the Dutch governor, Johannes
de Graaff, of the West Indian island of St. Eustatius, ordered the Fort
Orange batteries at the harbor entrance to fire a return salute to the USS Andrew Doria,
flying the ‘Grand Union' flag, on 6 November 1776. The governor was
temporally removed -- until 1779 -- by The Netherlands' as that nation
was not yet at war with England.]
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Comte de Guichen entered the navy in 1730 as a ‘garde de la marine', the first rank in the corps of royal officers. In 1748, he became a ‘lieutenant de vaisseau', meaning that he could command a frigate. In 1756, he was made ‘capitaine de vaisseau', meaning he could command a ship of the line. Guichen was awarded the chevalier de Saint Louis in 1748. In 1775, he was appointed to the frigate Terpsichore,
attached to an experimental squadron, to develop naval tactical
maneuvers. In 1776, Guichen was promoted ‘chef d'escadre', comparable to
‘rear-admiral'. When France had became the ally of the Americans in the
War of Independence, Guichen commanded the Ville de Paris, as part of the French fleet that deployed in the Manche, and was present at the battle of Ouessant [Ushant] on 27 July 1779.
In March of 1780, Guichen was sent to the West Indies with a strong
squadron, where he opposed the British admiral, George Rodney. In the
first meeting between them, on 17 April 1780, the two spared off the
coast of Martinique. Recognizing that Rodney was a formidable opponent,
Guichen maneuvered with caution and skill. He managed to keep ‘the
weather gauge' in three engagements (17 April, and 15 and 19 May),
denying the British admiral an opportunity to engage in close action.
Most Anglophone authors excuse the British disappointment on the failure
of the British ship captains' poor execution of their admiral's command
signals. However, Guichen skillful handling his squadrons was exhibited
many times during his career. Anglophone naval historians also express
their preference of tactics that seek to destroy the opponent's
formation, with the logic that such results will leave open an
opportunity to later exploit less restricted conditions to pursue the
objectives of a campaign. This stated goal of naval warfare is a
criticism of the eighteenth century French naval doctrine which did not
emphasize so much the sinking of enemy vessels, or even destroying
crews, but rather to gain advantage that supported a specific objective
or mission – which was in most cases was land oriented [to transport and
to land ground forces ashore, and to deny the enemy to do such], and
with an ultimate goal to serve in the consolidation of a peace treaty.
From the French point of view, Guichen's 1780's operations in the West
Indies were quite successful in that admiral Rodney failed to upset the
advantage the French were having in that therater. [See West Indies Score Card During the American War for Independence.]
Guichen departed the West Indies on August 1780, trusting the safety of
the West Indies (with 9 vessels of the line, 6 frigates,and some smaller
ships) to chevalier de Monteil. In October 1780, Guichen served with a
combined Franco-Spanish operation under d'Estaing. The following
December, he left the allied operations and arrived back at Brest on 3
January 1781.
On 25 June 1781, Guichen departed Brest with 19 French vessels for Cadiz
to take in charge a combined Franco-Spanish fleet. On 23 July 1781, 49
vessels of the combined fleet departed Cadiz with 14,000 allied troops
that were landed at Minorca. He returned to Brest on 15 September. [The
French troops took the last British defense on Minorca on 4 February
1782].
In December 1781, Guichen commanded the force which was to transport
stores and reinforcements to the West Indies. On the 12 December, the
British admiral Kempenfelt, sighted the French convoy in the Bay of
Biscay. Taking advantage of a temporary clearance in the fog, the
British admiral, whose battle strength was less than that of the French,
boldly attacked the transports. Guichen could not prevent his enemy
from capturing twenty of the transports. The other transports fled and
returned to port. This marked the only serious failure Guichen endured
in the war. He was present with the French and Spanish naval forces when
the British admiral Howe prevailed in his brillant and final relief of
Gibraltar in October 1782.
Guichen died 13 January 1790.
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BARON DE MONTEIL
François-Aymar, baron de MONTEIL (1725-1787)
Monteil was a garde de la marine in 1741, a lieutenant de vaisseau in 1756, capitaine de vaisseau in 1762, chef d'escadre in 1779, and a lieutenant-général in 1783. As commandant of the 74 gun Le Conquérant he fought and was wounded at the battle of Ouessant [Ushant] (27 July 1778). In August 1780, aboard Le Palmier
(74), Monteil took command of the French navy in the West Indies,
where he was active in stirring up the Spanish authorities to take more
agressive action in the war. He led the French contribution [his
flagship, Le Palmier, l'Intrépide (74), le Destin (74), and le Triton (64)] to assist Gálvez' Pensacola conquest in May 1781. De Monteil commanded Le Languedoc
(80), and was chief of the rear-guard at the Second Battle of the
Capes. He receied the award of the 'Saint-Esprit' in November 1781. He
distinguished himself in the capture of Saint-Christophe in January
1782, but soon after he returned ill to France. He was promoted
lieutenant général 8 February 1783.
[It is unfortunate that some modern,
non scholarly French accounts incorrectly name a ‘Bausset' as
commanding the French naval contingent at Pensacola. That individual had
remained in European waters during the war.]
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BOUGAINVILLE
Louis-Antoine de BOUGAINVILLE (1729-1811)
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Bougainville, painted by Émile Lassalle
One of the most remarkable French naval commanders to serve in the
American war, though he never held a major command in that conflict. He
commanded ships in both fleets of d'Estaing and de Grasse that fought in
North America. Bougainville's daring and professional performance was
praised on several occasions, but de Grasse blamed Bougainville for
errors at the disaster of the Battle of the Saintes (12 April 1782).
The critical judgement by a French naval board, against Bougainville,
who had a long distinguished record, remains a controversial issue. It
did not prevent Bougainville from going on to acquire further
distinction in the service of France.
Bougainville's greatest fame is as a French naval explorer, a reputation
he acquired prior to serving in the American war. In December 1766,
Bougainville sailed from Nantes in the frigate La Boudeuse.
He was
accompanied by naturalists and other scientists. He passed through the
Strait of Magellan and into the South Pacific in July 1767. In late
March 1768 he discovered islands in the archipelago of Tuamoto, now
French Polynesia. Continuing he landed on Tahiti about the same time
the British sea captian, Cook, would depart England on his first
scientific exploration in August of 1768. Bougainville continued to sail
west until reaching what is now named Bougainville reef, just to the
east of the Great Barrier reef. His course took him to an Archipelago
which he named after Louis XV of France – now the island group of Papua
New Guinea. He sailed on to discover Choiseul island, Bougainville
Island and the Bougainville Strait. Bougainville's voyage took him to
New Britain, Buru in the Moluccas, Batavia (now Jakarta) in Java, before
returning in March 1769 to Saint-Malo, in Brittany. While at Tahiti, a
woman was discovered aboard Bougainville's ship. She was Jeanne Baré,
who had disguised herself as a seaman and would be the frist female to
completely circumnavigate the globe. This added to the other record set
in that Bougainville was the first French sea captian to sail round the
world in a French ship.
Bougainville's remarkable life spanned many years and included many
careers. Before the American Revolution he had published an acclaimed
work on mathematics and served with distinction as an army officer in
Canada and in Europe during the Seven Years' War. After the American
Revolution he survived the French Revolution and served in offices under
Napoleon Bonaparte. For further information on Bougainville see:
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COMTE DE LA PÉROUSE
Jean Francois de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse (1741 - c.1788)
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Louis XVI was known as ‘the Sailor King' for his
interest in naval exploration and, therfore, his general support for
naval improvements that served so well the American cause in the War for
American Independence. The above painting is of the French king
assigning a French navy veteran of the American War for Independence, La
Pérouse, to undertake the expedition described below.
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Comte de La Pérouse served with notable skill as a ship captain in many
of the naval campaigns of the War for American Independence.
As part of Comte d'Estaing's fleet, La Pérouse, commanding the Amazone, captured the British
Ariel that was cruising off the Georgia coast on 10
September 1779. Comte de La Pérouse was promoted to rank of commodore.
His next famous exploit was at the Naval battle of Louisbourg (21 July
1781), where he commanded the frigate Astrée, and along side of La Touche Tréville commanding Hermione,
fought a squadron of five British frigates escorting a convoy. The
small French force captured one British ship by the time night fall
ended the engagement and the British ships sought safety at the nearby
harbor of Louisbourg. The French squadron returned to Boston with two
captured British escort ships (Jack and Thorn)
and three merchantmen. His most famous exploit during the war was when
Vaudreuil gave him an independent command to raid the Hudson Bay in
August 1781. La Pérouse captured the English forts Prince of Wales and
York on the Hudson Bay the coastline. He then allowed the British
occupants to sail to England in exchange for a promise to release French
prisoners held in England.
However, La Pérouse would obtain greater fame after the war as an
explorer.
In 1785 he took command of a French government expedition that was to
search for the Northwest Passage from the Pacific side and to explore
along the coasts of America, China, and Siberia and in the South Seas.
He reached Alaska, visited the Hawaiian Islands, Macao, and the
Philippines, then went to Japan and Kamchatka, and discovered La Pérouse
Strait in 1787. He touched at Samoa and the Friendly Islands. In 1788
he sailed from Botany Bay and was lost at sea. In 1826 the wrecks of
what appeared to be his ships were discovered in the New Hebrides (now
Vanuatu). La Pérouse's journals have appeared in French in several
editions.
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